HIV/AIDS

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Antiretroviral therapy: drug resistance

Africa

• WHO African Region
  • Preventing and Responding to HIV Drug Resistance in the African Region: Regional action plan 2019-2023 [2019]

• World Health Organization
  • Target product profile for HIV drug resistance tests in low- and middle-income countries: Africa [2023]

Americas

• Pan American Health Organization
  • HIV Drug Resistance

Armenia

• Viruses
  • Prevalence of Pretreatment HIV-1 Drug Resistance in Armenia in 2017-2018 and 2020-2021 following a WHO Survey [2022]

Australia

• Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine
  • Principles of managing antiretroviral drug resistance
  • Drug-Resistance Testing

Belgium

• PLoS ONE
  • Trends and Predictors of Transmitted Drug Resistance (TDR) and Clusters with TDR in a Local Belgian HIV-1 Epidemic [2014]

Botswana

• PLoS ONE
  • The Emergence of HIV Transmitted Resistance in Botswana: “When Will the WHO Detection Threshold Be Exceeded?” [2007]

Brazil

• Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes
  • Cost-Effectiveness of Genotype Testing for Primary Resistance in Brazil [2015]

Bulgaria

• Viruses
  • Transmitted HIV Drug Resistance in Bulgaria Occurs in Clusters of Individuals from Different Transmission Groups and Various Subtypes (2012-2020) [2023]

Cambodia

• AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses
  • Extensive Drug Resistance in HIV-Infected Cambodian Children Who Are Undetected as Failing First-Line Antiretroviral Therapy by WHO 2010 Guidelines [2013]

Cameroon

• BMC Public Health
  • Declining trends in early warning indicators for HIV drug resistance in Cameroon from 2008-2010: lessons and challenges for low-resource settings [2013]

• PLoS ONE
  • Monitoring HIV Drug Resistance Early Warning Indicators in Cameroon: A Study Following the Revised World Health Organization Recommendations [2015]

Canada

• Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes
  • Prevalence of Primary Drug Resistance Against HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitors in Canada [2018]

Cape Verde

• Viruses
  • Genetic Diversity and Antiretroviral Resistance in HIV-1-Infected Patients Newly Diagnosed in Cabo Verde [2024]

China

• Biomedical and Environmental Sciences
  • The Prevalence of HIV Drug Resistance among Treatment-failure Individuals and Treatment-naïve Individuals in China: A Meta-analysis [2014]

• China CDC Weekly
  • Relationship Between Drug Resistance and Death in HIV-Infected Patients Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy — 7 PLADs, China, 2010-2019 [2021]

• EClinicalMedicine
  • Trend of HIV-1 drug resistance in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis of data accumulated over 17 years (2001–2017) [2020]

• Scientific Reports
  • Prevalence of Transmitted HIV drug resistance in antiretroviral treatment naïve newly diagnosed individuals in China [2018]

Croatia

• Scientific Reports
  • Analysis of HIV-1 diversity, primary drug resistance and transmission networks in Croatia [2019]

Denmark

• EuroSurveillance
  • Characterisation of HIV-1 transmission clusters and drug-resistant mutations in Denmark, 2004 to 2016 [2018]

Ethiopia

• BMC Public Health
  • Prevalence of HIV drug resistance among patients experiencing first-line treatment failure in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]

Europe

• Clinical Infectious Diseases
  • Transmission of HIV Drug Resistance and the Predicted Effect on Current First-line Regimens in Europe [2015]

• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
  • Developing a reporting system for the surveillance of HIV drug resistance in Europe [2019]

• EuroSurveillance
  • Piloting a surveillance system for HIV drug resistance in the European Union [2019]
  • Assessment of HIV molecular surveillance capacity in the European Union, 2016 [2017]

Europe, United States

• HIV Research & Clinical Practice
  • Effects of antiretroviral resistance on outcomes and health care resource utilisation among people with HIV in the United States and Europe: a real-world survey [2025]

France

• Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale
  • HIV-1 genotypic drug resistance interpretation’s algorithms

• Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
  • Use of genotypic HIV DNA testing: a DELPHI-type consensus [2024]

Honduras

• PLoS ONE
  • HIV Drug Resistance Surveillance in Honduras after a Decade of Widespread Antiretroviral Therapy [2015]

India

• International Journal of Infectious Diseases
  • HIV drug resistance following a decade of free antiretroviral therapy program in India: A review [2018]

International

• Antiviral Therapy
  • HIV drug resistance in the era of contemporary antiretroviral therapy: A clinical perspective [2023]

• EClinicalMedicine
  • Global, regional, and national prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance in treatment-naive and treatment-experienced children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2024]

• Frontiers in Pharmacology
  • Transmitted Drug Resistance in Antiretroviral Therapy-Naive Persons With Acute/Early/Primary HIV Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2021]

• Lancet Microbe
  • Public availability of HIV-1 drug resistance sequence and treatment data: a systematic review [2022]

• PLoS Medicine
  • Geographic and Temporal Trends in the Molecular Epidemiology and Genetic Mechanisms of Transmitted HIV-1 Drug Resistance: An Individual-Patient- and Sequence-Level Meta-Analysis [2015]

• PLoS ONE
  • Collaborative update of a rule-based expert system for HIV-1 genotypic resistance test interpretation [2017]

• Viruses
  • Integrative Computational Approaches for Understanding Drug Resistance in HIV-1 Protease Subtype C [2025]

Iran

• BMC Infectious Diseases
  • Prevalence of acquired and transmitted HIV drug resistance in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2024]

• PLoS ONE
  • Cost-effectiveness of pretreatment HIV drug resistance testing in people living with HIV in Iran [2024]
  • Prevalence of Transmitted HIV Drug Resistance in Iran between 2010 and 2011 [2013]

Israel

• Viruses
  • Epidemiology and Transmitted HIV-1 Drug Resistance among Treatment-Naïve Individuals in Israel, 2010-2018 [2021]

Jordan

• International Journal of Infectious Diseases
  • Clinical, molecular, and drug resistance epidemiology of HIV in Jordan, 2019-2021: A national study [2024]

Kazakhstan

• Scientific Reports
  • Antiretroviral therapy resistance mutations among HIV infected people in Kazakhstan [2022]

• Viruses
  • High-Level Drug-Resistant Mutations among HIV-1 Subtype A6 and CRF02_AG in Kazakhstan [2023]

Latin America

• AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses
  • Transmitted Drug Resistance Among Antiretroviral-Naive Patients with Established HIV Type 1 Infection in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic and Review of the Latin American and Caribbean Literature [2012]

Latin America and the Caribbean

• PLoS ONE
  • Surveillance of HIV Transmitted Drug Resistance in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2016]

Lesotho

• Medicine
  • Should viral load thresholds be lowered? Revisiting the WHO definition for virologic failure in patients on antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings [2016]

Low and middle income countries

• Lancet Infectious Diseases
  • HIV-1 drug resistance before initiation or re-initiation of first-line antiretroviral therapy in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis [2018]

Middle East, North Africa

• Virology Journal
  • Evaluating HIV drug resistance in the middle East and North Africa and its associated factors: a systematic review [2025]

Mozambique

• Pan African Medical Journal
  • Evaluation of the HIV drug resistance surveillance system in Mozambique, 2017-2018 [2022]

• Viruses
  • HIV-1 Antiretroviral Drug Resistance in Mozambique: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2024]
  • Molecular Epidemiology and Trends in HIV-1 Transmitted Drug Resistance in Mozambique 1999-2018 [2022]

Namibia

• Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes
  • Population-based Surveillance of HIV Drug Resistance Emerging on Treatment and Associated Factors at Sentinel Antiretroviral Therapy Sites in Namibia [2015]

• PLoS ONE
  • Assessment of the World Health Organization’s HIV Drug Resistance Early Warning Indicators in Main and Decentralized Outreach Antiretroviral Therapy Sites in Namibia [2016]
  • HIV Drug Resistance Early Warning Indicators in Namibia with Updated World Health Organization Guidance [2014]

Papua New Guinea

• BMC Infectious Diseases
  • High prevalence of pre-treatment HIV drug resistance in Papua New Guinea: findings from the first nationally representative pre-treatment HIV drug resistance study [2022]

Russia

• Viruses
  • HIV-1 Drug Resistance among Treatment-Naïve Patients in Russia: Analysis of the National Database, 2006-2022 [2023]

Rwanda

• Antiviral Therapy
  • Acquired HIV drug resistance among adults living with HIV receiving first-line antiretroviral therapy in Rwanda: A cross-sectional nationally representative survey [2022]

South Africa

• AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses
  • Primary Drug Resistance in South Africa: Data from 10 Years of Surveys [2012]

• EClinicalMedicine
  • Trends in Pretreatment HIV-1 Drug Resistance in Antiretroviral Therapy-naive Adults in South Africa, 2000–2016: A Pooled Sequence Analysis [2019]

• PLOS Computational Biology
  • Bridging the gap between HIV epidemiology and antiretroviral resistance evolution: Modelling the spread of resistance in South Africa [2019]

South-East Asia

• Journal of Public Health and Emergency
  • HIV drug resistance in Southeast Asia: prevalence, determinants, and strategic management [2022]

Southern Africa

• Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
  • Acquired HIV drug resistance mutations on first-line antiretroviral therapy in Southern Africa: Systematic review and Bayesian evidence synthesis [2022]

Spain

• Scientific Reports
  • Prevalence and patterns of antiretroviral resistance in HIV-infected Latin American asylum seekers [2025]

Sub-Saharan Africa

• Journal of Virus Eradication
  • HIV drug resistance in sub-Saharan Africa: public health questions and the potential role of real-world data and mathematical modelling [2018]

• PLoS ONE
  • The association between HIV pretreatment drug resistance and virological outcomes in children and adults in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis [2024]

Sweden

• PLoS ONE
  • Trends in Antiretroviral Therapy and Prevalence of HIV Drug Resistance Mutations in Sweden 1997–2011 [2013]

Switzerland

• Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
  • Prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations in proviral DNA in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study, a retrospective study from 1995 to 2018 [2023]

Uganda

• Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
  • HIV drug resistance among adults initiating antiretroviral therapy in Uganda [2021]

• Ministry of Health Uganda
  • National HIV Drug Resistance Prevention, Monitoring and Surveillance Activities, National Status Report [2018]

• PLoS ONE
  • Population-based monitoring of HIV drug resistance early warning indicators in Uganda: A nationally representative survey following revised WHO recommendations [2020]

United Kingdom

• Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
  • Surveillance of HIV-1 transmitted integrase strand transfer inhibitor resistance in the UK [2020]

• NHS England
  • Fostemsavir for multi-drug resistant HIV-1 infection (adult) [2022]

United States

• Clinicalinfo
  • Drug-Resistance Testing

• International Antiviral Society-USA
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus Drug Resistance: 2018 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel [2018]

• National HIV Curriculum
  • Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

• New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute
  • HIV Resistance Assays

• Open Forum Infectious Diseases
  • A National HIV Provider Survey of Antiretroviral Therapy Preferences for Management of Treatment-Naive and Experienced Individuals With Drug Resistance [2023]

• Pharmacotherapy
  • Consensus recommendations for the use of novel antiretrovirals in persons with HIV who are heavily treatment-experienced and/or have multidrug-resistant HIV-1: Endorsed by the American Academy of HIV Medicine, American College of Clinical Pharmacy [2024]

Uruguay

• Viruses
  • HIV Drug Resistance in Adults Initiating or Reinitiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Uruguay-Results of a Nationally Representative Survey, 2018-2019 [2023]

Vietnam

• Journal of the International AIDS Society
  • The prevalence of pre-treatment and acquired HIV drug resistance in Vietnam: a nationally representative survey, 2017-2018 [2022]

• Western Pacific Surveillance and Response Journal
  • Viral load suppression and acquired HIV drug resistance in adults receiving antiretroviral therapy in Viet Nam: results from a nationally representative survey [2018]

WHO

• World Health Organization
  • HIV drug resistance – brief report 2024 [2024]
  • Report on the global action plan on HIV drug resistance 2017–2021 [2023]
  • Sentinel surveys of acquired HIV resistance to dolutegravir among people receiving dolutegravir-containing antiretroviral therapy [2022]
  • WHO HIV drug resistance network steering group meeting report, June 2021 [2021]
  • HIV drug resistance strategy, 2021 update [2021]
  • HIV drug resistance report 2021 [2021]
  • Clinic-based survey of acquired HIV drug resistance [2021]
  • WHO manual for HIV drug resistance testing using dried blood spot specimens [2020]
  • WHO HIVResNet HIV drug resistance laboratory operational framework [2020]
  • WHO HIV ResNet 2017 meeting report [2018]
  • Global action plan on HIV drug resistance 2017-2021: 2018 progress report, July 2018: executive summary [2018]
  • Surveillance of HIV drug resistance in children newly diagnosed with HIV by early infant diagnosis: concept note [2017]
  • HIV drug resistance: tackling HIV drug resistance: trends, guidelines and global actions: policy brief [2017]
  • HIV drug resistance surveys: tool for data entry: user manual [2017]
  • Guidelines on the public health response to pretreatment HIV drug resistance: July 2017 [2017]
  • Guidance for sampling ART clinics in countries combining surveillance of pre-treatment HIV drug resistance and acquired HIV drug resistance at 12 and 48+ months [2017]
  • Global action plan on HIV drug resistance 2017–2021 [2017]
  • HIV drug resistance surveillance guidance [2016]
  • Surveillance of HIV drug resistance in adults receiving ART [2014]
  • Surveillance of HIV drug resistance in adults initiating antiretroviral therapy - pre-treatment HIV drug resistance [2014]
  • Tackling HIV drug resistance
  • Surveillance of acquired HIV drug resistance in populations receiving ART
  • HIV drug resistance: Fact sheet
  • HIV drug resistance

Zimbabwe

• Frontiers in Public Health
  • Strengthening and enhancing national antiretroviral drug resistance surveillance in Zimbabwe-A country that has reached UNAIDS 95-95-95 amongst adults [2024]

{Related topics}

• Topic
  • Antiretroviral therapy