Ethics, jurisprudence

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Ethics, jurisprudence: gestational carriers, surrogacy

Africa

• Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics
  • Global justice in the context of transnational surrogacy: an African bioethical perspective [2022]

Argentina

• Ciência & Saúde Coletiva
  • Between choices and decisions. Genetics in homoparental families through surrogacy in Argentina [2024]

• Health and Human Rights Journal
  • Assisted Regulation: Argentine Courts Address Regulatory Gaps on Surrogacy [2023]

Australia

• Human Fertility
  • Psychosocial assessment of interpersonal relationships in altruistic surrogacy counselling [2026]
  • Australian intended parents' decision-making and characteristics and outcomes of surrogacy arrangements completed in Australia and overseas [2023]

• SA Health
  • Surrogacy in SA Public Health Services Clinical Directive

• Surrogacy in Australia
  • Surrogacy in Australia

Australia, New Zealand

• Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists
  • Surrogacy in Australia and New Zealand [2021]

Bulgaria

• African Health Sciences
  • Ethical, medico-legal and financial aspects of the legalization of surrogate maternity in Bulgaria [2025]

Canada

• Human Reproduction
  • Assisted reproduction involving gestational surrogacy: an analysis of the medical, psychosocial and legal issues: experience from a large surrogacy program [2014]

China

• BioScience Trends
  • The status of surrogacy in China [2023]

• BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
  • Surrogacy: a family-building option in search of legitimacy [2016]

• British Journal of Sociology
  • Commercial Surrogacy Is not a Secret Handshake: It Is a High-Five: Gay Fathers in China's Changing Landscape [2025]

• Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
  • Healthcare Professionals and Unregulated Commercial Surrogacy in China: Ethical and Legal Challenges [2025]

Czech Republic

• Biomedical Papers
  • Gestational surrogacy in the Czech Republic [2019]

Europe

• European Parliament
  • Surrogacy: The legal situation in the EU [2025]

• European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology
  • Ethical considerations on surrogacy [2025]

• Medical Law Review
  • Towards an international consensus on cross-border surrogacy: the role of the European Court of Human Rights? [2025]
  • Accommodations of private and family life and non-traditional families: the limits of deference in cases of cross-border surrogacy before the European Court of Human Rights [2024]
  • Parenthood and Cross-Border Surrogacy: What Is ‘New’? The ECtHR’s First Advisory Opinion [2020]

Ghana

• BMJ Open
  • Surrogacy in Ghana: a qualitative study exploring recruitment processes, eligibility criteria, stigma and postnatal care experiences among surrogate mothers [2025]

• PLoS ONE
  • Wombs for rent: Exploring the motivations behind Ghanaian Women's decisions to become surrogate mothers [2026]

• Reproductive Health
  • Socio-ethical and legal issues regarding surrogacy in Ghana: a qualitative study [2025]

High-income countries

• Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology
  • Maternal, pregnancy, and neonatal outcomes associated with surrogacy: a scoping review [2026]

India

• BMJ Global Health
  • Regulation of surrogacy in India: whenceforth now? [2018]

• Cureus
  • The Surrogacy Regulation Act of 2021: A Right Step Towards an Egalitarian and Inclusive Society? [2023]

• India Code
  • The surrogacy (regulation) act, 2021 [2021]

• Indian Journal of Medical Ethics
  • Report of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016: A commentary [2018]
  • Ending commercial surrogacy in India: significance of the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016 [2018]

• Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
  • Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices [2018]

• Ministry of Health and Family Welfare India
  • National art & Surrogacy Portal

• Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine
  • The advantages and disadvantages of altruistic and commercial surrogacy in India [2023]

• Qualitative Social Work
  • The impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on surrogacy in India: The role of social work [2021]

• Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters
  • Reproductive trauma, vulnerable mothers, and disenfranchised grief: reflecting on the affective dimensions of surrogacy practice in Indian literary and film narratives [2024]

International

• European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology
  • The legally charged issue of cross-border surrogacy: Current regulatory challenges and future prospects [2024]

• Gynecological and Reproductive Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Surrogacy – a worldwide demand. Implementation and ethical considerations [2021]

• Health Care for Women International
  • Commercial surrogacy: Landscapes of empowerment or oppression explored through integrative review [2025]

• International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics
  • FIGO position statement on surrogacy: Ethical considerations [2025]

• International Journal of Comparative Sociology
  • Inequalities in (trans)national surrogacy: A call for examining complex lived realities with an empirical lens [2022]

• Medicina
  • Surrogacy and “Procreative Tourism”. What Does the Future Hold from the Ethical and Legal Perspectives? [2021]

• OxJournal
  • The Need for Global Surrogacy Guidelines: A Focus on the Current Ethical and Legal Considerations Regarding Surrogates, Intended Parents and Children [2024]

• Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia
  • Commercial Surrogacy: An Overview [2022]

• United Nations Children's Fund - UNICEF
  • Key Considerations: Children's Rights & Surrogacy - Briefing Note [2022]

• United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
  • Surrogacy

• Wikipedia
  • Surrogacy laws by country

Ireland

• International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family
  • Prohibiting commercial surrogacy in Ireland [2025]

Israel

• Ministry of Health Israel
  • Surrogacy in Israel

• Reproductive BioMedicine Online
  • Surrogacy disruptions: narratives of retired Israeli surrogates with an incomplete surrogacy experience [2025]

• Social Science & Medicine
  • The "natural" in the artificial: Surrogates' reproductive literacy in navigating the health care system [2025]

Israel, United States

• Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics
  • Incidence of surrogacy in the USA and Israel and implications on women’s health: a quantitative comparison [2019]

Italy

• Acta Biomedica
  • A child of two mothers: what about the father? Italian overview [2019]

• La Clinica Terapeutica
  • The Criminalization of Surrogacy in Italy: Legal Framework, Ethical Tensions, and European Perspectives [2025]
  • Is the latest amendment to Law 40/2004 a positive evolution or a regressive move? [2025]
  • Parents' 'fault' must not weigh on their children. Surrogacy as a universal crime in Italy: Is it compatible with bioethical principles? [2024]

• Open Medicine
  • Ethical and Legal Issues in Gestational Surrogacy [2018]

Netherlands

• PLoS ONE
  • Mapping the path to domestic surrogacy: Identifying key facilitators and barriers in the Netherlands [2025]

New Zealand

• Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
  • New Zealand's Approaches to Regulating the Commodification of the Female Body : A Comparative Analysis Reveals Ethical Inconsistencies [2023]

• Te Aka Matua o te Ture | Law Commission
  • Review of surrogacy [2022]

Portugal

• JBRA Assisted Reproduction
  • The new Portuguese law on surrogacy - The story of how a promising law does not really regulate surrogacy arrangements [2017]

South America

• BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
  • A review of surrogate motherhood regulation in south American countries: pointing to a need for an international legal framework [2019]

Spain

• Ciência & Saúde Coletiva
  • Having children in cross-border contexts: late-family formation among homoparental families in Spain [2024]

Sweden

• Bioethics
  • Positioning uterus transplantation as a ‘more ethical’ alternative to surrogacy: Exploring symmetries between uterus transplantation and surrogacy through analysis of a Swedish government white paper [2018]

Taiwan

• Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology
  • A survey of judicial decisions concerning surrogacy disputes in Taiwan [2018]

Thailand

• Asian Bioethics Review
  • Non-commercial Surrogacy in Thailand: Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications in Local and Global Contexts [2020]

• Clinical Medicine Insights: Reproductive Health
  • Protection for Children Born Through Assisted Reproductive Technologies Act, B.E. 2558: The Changing Profile of Surrogacy in Thailand [2017]

Ukraine

• European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences
  • The armed conflict in Ukraine and the risks of inter-country surrogacy: the unsolved dilemma [2022]

• Medical Anthropology
  • Reproductive Entanglements in Times of War: Transnational Gestational Surrogacy in Ukraine and Beyond [2023]

United Kingdom

• British Infertility Counselling Association
  • Counselling challenges associated with donor conception and surrogacy treatments - time for debate [2022]

• Department of Health and Social Care
  • Having a child through surrogacy

• Home Office
  • Surrogacy [2023]

• Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority
  • Surrogacy: a factsheet

• Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
  • Surrogacy and Adoption: An Empirical Investigation of Public Moral Attitudes [2024]

• Law Commission
  • Surrogacy

• Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
  • Options for acquiring motherhood in absolute uterine factor infertility; adoption, surrogacy and uterine transplantation [2021]

• Reproductive BioMedicine Online
  • The future of surrogacy: a review of current global trends and national landscapes [2024]

• Right Decisions
  • Surrogacy guideline

• WISDOM
  • Surrogacy Guideline [2023]

United Kingdom, United States

• Fertility and Sterility
  • Addressing legal issues in cross-border gestational surrogacy: current topics and trends [2021]

United States

• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
  • Family Building Through Gestational Surrogacy [2016]

• American Society for Reproductive Medicine
  • Consideration of the gestational carrier: an Ethics Committee opinion [2023]
  • Recommendations for practices using gestational carriers: a committee opinion [2022]
  • Using family members as gamete donors or gestational carriers [2017]
  • Surrogacy Laws By State
  • Gestational Carrier or Surrogacy

• Fertility and Sterility
  • International gestational surrogacy in the United States, 2014-2020 [2024]

• JAMA
  • Trends and Outcomes of Assisted Reproductive Technology Cycles Using a Gestational Carrier Between 2014 and 2020 [2023]

• Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics
  • National-level assessment of gestational carrier pregnancies in the United States [2025]
  • The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gestational carriers [2022]

• Pediatrics
  • Gestational Carrier Pregnancies: Legal and Ethical Considerations for Pediatricians [2024]

• Reproductive BioMedicine Online
  • Surrogacy in the United States: analysis of sociodemographic profiles and motivations of surrogates [2024]

• Travel.State.Gov
  • Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) and Surrogacy Abroad

{Related topics}

• Topic
  • Ethics, jurisprudence: assisted reproductive technology