Pregnancy

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Thyroid diseases in pregnancy

Africa

• Public Health Nutrition
  • Iodine nutrition status in Africa: potentially high prevalence of iodine deficiency in pregnancy even in countries classified as iodine sufficient [2021]

Asia

• Endocrine Journal
  • Screening and management of hypothyroidism in pregnancy: Results of an Asian survey [2014]
  • Management of hyperthyroidism during pregnancy in Asia [2014]

Australia

• Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition
  • The impact of mandatory iodine fortification and supplementation on pregnant and lactating women in Australia [2019]

• Australian Family Physician
  • Thyroid disease in the perinatal period [2012]

• Australian Prescriber
  • Thyroid disorders in pregnancy and postpartum [2017]

• SA Health
  • Thyroid Disorders in Pregnancy

Australia, New Zealand

• Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists
  • Subclinical hypothyroidism and hypothyroidism in pregnancy [2022]

Bangladesh

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Approach to management of hypo and hyperthyroidism in Bangladesh: a nationwide physicians' perspective survey [2024]

Brazil

• Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Management of gestational hypothyroidism: results of a Brazilian survey [2015]

• Federação Brasileira das Associações de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia
  • Screening, diagnosis and management of hypothyroidism in pregnancy [2022]
  • Screening, diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy [2022]

Canada

• Alberta Health Services
  • Thyroid Function Assessment & Monitoring in Women of Child-Bearing Age

• BCGuidelines
  • Thyroid Function Testing in the Diagnosis and Monitoring of Thyroid Function Disorder

• CMAJ
  • Thyroid function testing and management during and after pregnancy among women without thyroid disease before pregnancy [2020]

• Thyroid
  • Thyroid Laboratory Testing and Management in Women on Thyroid Replacement Before Pregnancy and Associated Pregnancy Outcomes [2021]

Chile

• Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Reference Ranges in the First Trimester of Pregnancy in an Iodine-Sufficient Country [2018]

China

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Gestational TSH and FT4 Reference Intervals in Chinese Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2018]

• International Journal of Endocrinology
  • Trimester- and Assay-Specific Thyroid Reference Intervals for Pregnant Women in China [2016]

• JAMA Network Open
  • Preconception Thyrotropin Levels and Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes in Chinese Women Aged 20 to 49 Years [2021]

Czech Republic

• Biomedical Papers
  • The prevalence of maternal hypothyroidism in first trimester screening from 11 to 14 weeks of gestation [2019]

Denmark

• Clinical Epidemiology
  • Chronic diseases in the children of women with maternal thyroid dysfunction: a nationwide cohort study [2018]

Europe

• European Thyroid Association
  • 2014 European Thyroid Association Guidelines for the Management of Subclinical Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy and in Children [2014]

• WHO European Region
  • Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in the WHO European Region: adapting to changes in diet and lifestyle [2024]

Europe, United States

• Current Medical Research and Opinion
  • Optimizing levothyroxine treatment for subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy [2024]

• Endocrine Connections
  • Update on therapeutic use of levothyroxine for the management of hypothyroidism during pregnancy [2024]

Finland

• Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica
  • Indications for intensive care unit treatment among neonates born to mothers with thyroid disease: A population-based cohort study [2022]

• European Thyroid Journal
  • The Increased Trend of Medical Treatment for Thyroid Diseases during Pregnancy: A 13-Year National Study [2021]

France

• Annales d'Endocrinologie
  • SFE-AFCE-SFMN 2022 Consensus on the management of thyroid nodules : Thyroid nodules and pregnancy [2022]

Germany

• Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde
  • Recommendations of the AGG (Working Group for Obstetrics, Department of Maternal Diseases) on How to Treat Thyroid Function Disorders in Pregnancy [2023]

High-income countries

• British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
  • Antithyroid drug use during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects in offspring: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies with methodological considerations [2021]

India

• Federation of Obstetric and Gynecological Societies of India
  • Thyroid Update in Pregnancy [2021]

• Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Prevalence of hypothyroidism in pregnancy: An epidemiological study from 11 cities in 9 states of India [2016]
  • Subclinical hypothyroidism in the first trimester of pregnancy in North India [2013]

• Ministry of Health and Family Welfare India
  • National Guidelines for Screening of Hypothyroidism during Pregnancy [2014]

• Thyroid Research and Practice
  • Thyroid disorders in pregnancy: Consensus statement of Indian Thyroid Society [2021]

International

• Advances in Nutrition
  • Association of Mild-to-Moderate Iodine Deficiency With Thyroid Function-A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [2025]

• Annals of Palliative Medicine
  • Systematic review and meta-analysis on the influence of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy on pregnancy outcomes under ultrasound guidance [2022]

• Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Thyroid Nodules and Cancer during Pregnancy, Post-partum and Preconception Planning: Addressing the Uncertainties and Challenges [2020]

• European Thyroid Journal
  • Iodine Supplementation in Pregnancy and the Dilemma of Ambiguous Recommendations [2016]

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • The impact of levothyroxine therapy on the pregnancy, neonatal and childhood outcomes of subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy: An updated systematic review, meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis [2022]
  • Effect of Hyperthyroidism Control During Pregnancy on Maternal and Fetal Outcome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2022]

• International Journal of Molecular Sciences
  • Critical Role of Iodine and Thyroid Hormones During Pregnancy [2025]

• Journal of Autoimmunity
  • Interpretation of the association between thyroid peroxidase antibodies and thyroid function during pregnancy: An individual participant data meta-analysis [2025]

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Defining Gestational Thyroid Dysfunction Through Modified Nonpregnancy Reference Intervals: An Individual Participant Meta-analysis [2024]

• Nutrients
  • Effect of Iodine Nutrition During Pregnancy and Lactation on Child Cognitive Outcomes: A Review [2025]
  • Maternal Iodine Status and Birth Outcomes: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis [2023]

• Thyroid
  • Risk Factors for Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnancy: An Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis [2024]
  • Effects of Levothyroxine Treatment on Fertility and Pregnancy Outcomes in Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [2024]

Iran

• BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
  • Thyroid dysfunction in Iranian pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2020]

• International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Prevalent Practices of Thyroid Diseases During Pregnancy Among Endocrinologists, Internists and General Practitioners [2015]

• International Journal of Fertility & Sterility
  • Prevalence of Subclinical Hypothyroidism in Pregnant Women in Tehran-Iran [2014]

Italy

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Fifteen Years of Iodine Prophylaxis in Italy: Results of a Nationwide Surveillance (Period 2015-2019) [2024]

Japan

• Endocrine Journal
  • Mother’s iodine exposure and infants’ hypothyroidism: the Japan environment and children’s study [2021]

Macedonia

• Acta Clinica Croatica
  • Isolated maternal hypothyroxinemia and its perinatal outcome in North Macedonia [2021]

• Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia
  • Thyroid Function of Pregnant Women and Perinatal Outcomes in North Macedonia [2021]

Malta

• BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
  • Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy - a retrospective observational analysis of a Maltese cohort [2022]

Middle East, North Africa

• Journal of Diabetes and Endocrine Practice
  • Management of Thyroid Disorders during Pregnancy: A Survey of Physicians from the Middle East and North Africa [2025]

Pakistan

• Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Thyroid disorders in pregnancy: An overview of literature from Pakistan [2013]

Poland

• Endokrynologia Polska
  • Thyroid diseases in pregnancy: guidelines of the Polish Society of Endocrinology [2021]

• Thyroid Research
  • Iodine prophylaxis in pregnant women in Poland - where we are? (update 2015) [2015]

Portugal

• Journal of Family & Reproductive Health
  • Controversial Screening for Thyroid Dysfunction in Preconception and Pregnancy: An Evidence-Based Review [2020]

Republic of Korea

• Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • 2025 Korean Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for Radioactive Iodine Therapy in Patients with Hyperthyroidism [2025]
  • Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease during Pregnancy and Postpartum: 2023 Revised Korean Thyroid Association Guidelines [2023]

• Korean Journal of Internal Medicine
  • Reference intervals of thyroid hormones during pregnancy in Korea, an iodine-replete area [2018]

Russia

• International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
  • Iodine Status of Women and Infants in Russia: A Systematic Review [2020]

South Asia

• BMC Endocrine Disorders
  • Best practices in the laboratory diagnosis, prognostication, prediction, and monitoring of Graves' disease: role of TRAbs [2024]

Spain

• Anales de Pediatría (English Edition)
  • Recommendations for the diagnosis and followup of the foetus and newborn child born to mothers with autoimmune thyroid disease [2018]

Sri Lanka

• Sri Lanka College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists
  • Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period [2022]

Switzerland

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Iodine content of frequently used prenatal and adult multivitamins in Switzerland [2022]

United Arab Emirates

• Practical Laboratory Medicine
  • Trimester specific reference ranges for serum TSH and Free T4 among United Arab Emirates pregnant women [2018]

United Kingdom

• British Journal of General Practice
  • Thyroid hormone replacement in the preconception period and pregnancy [2019]

• Clinical Medicine
  • Controversies in thyroid disease management in pregnancy [2025]

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Preconception Management of Hyperthyroidism and Thyroid Status in Subsequent Pregnancy: A Population-Based Cohort Study [2023]

• Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
  • Carbimazole: increased risk of congenital malformations; strengthened advice on contraception [2019]

• Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists
  • Management of Thyroid Disorders in Pregnancy [2025]

• WISDOM
  • Guideline for Management of Thyroid Disorders in Pregnancy [2024]

United States

• Advances in Therapy
  • Levothyroxine Treatment of Pregnant Women with Hypothyroidism: Retrospective Analysis of a US Claims Database [2020]

• American Society for Reproductive Medicine
  • Subclinical hypothyroidism in the infertile female population: a guideline [2024]

• American Thyroid Association
  • 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and the Postpartum [2017]

• BMJ
  • Thyroid hormone treatment among pregnant women with subclinical hypothyroidism: US national assessment [2017]

• Endocrine Practice
  • Management Aspects of Medical Therapy in Graves Disease [2025]

• Endocrine Society
  • Management of Thyroid Dysfunction during Pregnancy and Postpartum: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline [2012]

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • The Need for Dynamic Clinical Guidelines: A Systematic Review of New Research Published After Release of the 2017 ATA Guidelines on Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and the Postpartum [2020]

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Testing, Monitoring, and Treatment of Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnancy [2021]

• Journal of the Endocrine Society
  • Practice Variation in the Care of Subclinical Hypothyroidism During Pregnancy: A National Survey of Physicians in the United States [2019]

• Journal of Thyroid Research
  • Management of Thyroid Peroxidase Antibody Euthyroid Women in Pregnancy: Comparison of the American Thyroid Association and the Endocrine Society Guidelines [2013]
  • Management of Hyperthyroidism in Pregnancy: Comparison of Recommendations of American Thyroid Association and Endocrine Society [2013]

• Missouri Medicine
  • Preexisting Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy: A Brief Overview [2022]

• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
  • Thyroid function in neonates of women with subclinical hypothyroidism or hypothyroxinemia [2018]
  • Neonatal outcomes and birth weight in pregnancies complicated by maternal thyroid disease [2013]

• Nutrients
  • History of U.S. Iodine Fortification and Supplementation [2012]

• StatPearls
  • Thyroid Disease and Pregnancy

WHO

• World Health Organization
  • Iodine thyroid blocking: Guidelines for use in planning and responding to radiological and nuclear emergencies [2017]
  • Urinary iodine concentrations for determining iodine status in populations [2013]
  • Iodine deficiency

{Related topics}

• Topic
  • Obstetrics, perinatology
  • Neonatal thyroid diseases, congenital hypothyroidism
  • Autoimmune diseases in pregnancy