Osteoporosis

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Osteoporosis: risk factors

Asia

• Asia Pacific Consortium on Osteoporosis
  • Evaluating compliance with the care standard of proactively assessing bone health in patients with diabetes: a pilot audit of practice across Asia by the Asia Pacific Consortium on Osteoporosis (APCO) [2024]

Australia

• Australian Journal of General Practice
  • Personalised assessment of fracture risk: Which tool to use? [2022]
  • Fracture risk prediction and the decision to treat low bone density [2021]

• Journal of Clinical Medicine
  • Incidence of Osteoporosis in Primary Care Patients with Atrial Fibrillation Receiving Different Oral Anticoagulants [2022]

• Royal Australian College of General Practitioners
  • Assessment of absolute fracture risk

Australia, New Zealand

• Australasian Menopause Society
  • Risk of Osteoporosis

Austria

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Osteoporosis treatment in Austria-assessment of FRAX-based intervention thresholds for high and very high fracture risk [2022]

Canada

• Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal
  • Fracture Risk Assessment in the 2023 Osteoporosis Canada Guideline [2025]

• Canadian Paediatric Society
  • Evaluating and optimizing bone health in children with chronic health conditions [2022]

• Osteoporosis International
  • Skeletal health status among patients with chronic hypoparathyroidism: results from the Canadian National Hypoparathyroidism Registry (CNHR) [2025]

China

• BMC Geriatrics
  • Osteoporosis risk and its association with all-cause and cause-specific mortality among the elderly: a 16-year nationwide cohort study [2025]

• Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
  • Diabetic Osteoporosis: A Review of Its Traditional Chinese Medicinal Use and Clinical and Preclinical Research [2016]

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Associations between abdominal obesity and the prevalence of fractures among Chinese adults: insights from a nationwide cross-sectional study [2026]
  • Application value of FRAX in high-altitude areas in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2026]
  • Associations of different dietary patterns, bone mineral density, and fracture risk among elderly women: the China Osteoporosis Prevalence Study [2024]

• Iranian Journal of Public Health
  • Prevalence of Osteoporosis in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in the Chinese Mainland: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2019]

• Scientific Reports
  • Risk analysis for subsequent fracture of osteoporotic fractures in Chinese women over age 60: a nationwide cross-sectional study [2024]

Denmark

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • The risk of major osteoporotic fractures with GLP-1 receptor agonists when compared to DPP-4 inhibitors: A Danish nationwide cohort study [2022]

East Asia, Europe

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Mendelian randomization studies of risk and protective factors for osteoporosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]

Europe

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Prevalence of FRAX risk factors and the osteoporosis treatment gap among women >= 70 years of age in routine primary care across 8 countries in Europe [2022]

• European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis, Osteoarthritis and Musculoskeletal Diseases
  • Identification and management of patients at increased risk of osteoporotic fracture: outcomes of an ESCEO expert consensus meeting [2017]

• European Society for Medical Oncology
  • Bone health in cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines [2020]

• European Society of Endocrinology
  • Revised European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline: Treatment of Chronic Hypoparathyroidism in Adults [2025]
  • European Expert Consensus on Practical Management of Specific Aspects of Parathyroid Disorders in Adults and in Pregnancy: Recommendations of the ESE Educational Program of Parathyroid Disorders [2022]

• International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
  • Environmental Substances Associated with Osteoporosis–A Scoping Review [2021]

• International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
  • Burden of osteoporosis and costs associated with human biomonitored cadmium exposure in three European countries: France, Spain and Belgium [2021]

France

• Annales d'Endocrinologie
  • French expert consensus statement on diagnosis and management of primary hyperparathyroidism [2025]

• Eating and Weight Disorders
  • Medication for bone loss in female patients with anorexia nervosa: a systematic review and management algorithm [2025]

Germany

• Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics
  • Osteoporotic fractures and subsequent fractures: imminent fracture risk from an analysis of German real-world claims data [2021]

• Rheumatology International
  • Osteoporosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: trends in the German National Database 2007–2017 [2020]

High-income countries

• Diabetic Medicine
  • Association between type 2 diabetes and site-specific fracture risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies including over 13 million participants [2026]

India

• Lung India
  • Prevalence and correlates of osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients in India [2014]

International

• Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría
  • Osteoporosis and Fracture Risk Associated with Novel Antidepressants: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2024]

• Annals of Medicine
  • Association between anaemia and osteoporosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2026]
  • Association of body mass index and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]

• BMC Endocrine Disorders
  • Effects of levothyroxine therapy on bone and mineral metabolism in hypothyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]
  • Prevalence of osteoporosis in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies [2023]

• BMJ Open
  • Epidemiology and factors associated with osteoporosis, falls and fractures in patients with chronic inflammatory rheumatic disease: a scoping review [2025]

• Bone
  • Associations between osteoporosis and drug exposure: A post-marketing study of the World Health Organization pharmacovigilance database (VigiBase®) [2021]

• Calcified Tissue International
  • Impact of femoral neck and lumbar spine BMD discordances on FRAX probabilities in women; a meta-analysis of international cohorts [2014]

• Clinical and Experimental Dermatology
  • Psoriasis and osteoporosis: a literature review [2022]

• Clinical Infectious Diseases
  • Recommendations for Evaluation and Management of Bone Disease in HIV [2015]

• Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
  • Treatment for osteoporosis in people with beta-thalassaemia [2023]

• COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
  • Relationship Between Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Osteoporosis: A Scoping Review [2024]

• Frontiers in Immunology
  • Global prevalence, site-specific patterns, and key risk factors for osteoporosis and bone loss in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2026]
  • Osteoporosis and fractures in systemic vasculitides: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]

• Indian Journal of Orthopaedics
  • Demystifying the Risk Factors and Preventive Measures for Osteoporosis [2023]

• International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
  • Association between Environmental Cadmium Exposure and Osteoporosis Risk in Postmenopausal Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2023]

• International Osteoporosis Foundation
  • The need to distinguish intervention thresholds and diagnostic thresholds in the management of osteoporosis [2023]
  • Biochemical Markers of Bone Fragility in Patients with Diabetes. A Narrative Review by the IOF and the ECTS [2023]
  • Population screening for fracture risk in postmenopausal women - a logical step in reducing the osteoporotic fracture burden? [2022]
  • Osteoporosis management in hematologic stem cell transplant recipients: Executive summary [2021]
  • FRAX and ethnicity [2021]
  • Bone health in childhood cancer: review of the literature and recommendations for the management of bone health in childhood cancer survivors [2019]
  • Diagnosis and management of bone fragility in diabetes: an emerging challenge [2018]
  • Patients at high risk of fracture

• Journal of Bone Oncology
  • Updated guidance on the management of cancer treatment-induced bone loss (CTIBL) in pre- and postmenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer [2021]
  • Management of bone metastasis and cancer treatment-induced bone loss during the COVID-19 pandemic: An international perspective and recommendations [2021]

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  • Bone Health in Adults With Prader–Willi Syndrome: Clinical Recommendations Based on a Multicenter Cohort Study [2023]

• Journal of Eating Disorders
  • Associations between bone mineral density, body composition and amenorrhoea in females with eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2022]

• Journal of Endocrinological Investigation
  • A systematic review on the performance of fracture risk assessment tools: FRAX, DeFRA, FRA-HS [2023]

• Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research
  • Association of dietary patterns with osteoporosis risk: a meta-analysis of observational studies [2025]
  • AI algorithms for accurate prediction of osteoporotic fractures in patients with diabetes: an up-to-date review [2023]

• Medicine
  • Association of type 2 diabetes with osteoporosis and fracture risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis [2025]

• Metabolism - Clinical and Experimental
  • Best practice recommendations for the diagnosis and management of hypoparathyroidism [2025]

• Nutrients
  • Ultra-Processed Food and Its Impact on Bone Health and Joint Diseases: A Scoping Review [2025]

• Osteoporosis International
  • Algorithm for the management of patients at low, high and very high risk of osteoporotic fractures [2019]
  • Primary hyperparathyroidism: review and recommendations on evaluation, diagnosis, and management. A Canadian and international consensus [2017]

• Pathogens
  • Bone Loss and Fractures in Post-Menopausal Women Living with HIV: A Narrative Review [2024]

• PLoS ONE
  • Bone fracture among people living with HIV: A systematic review and meta-regression of prevalence, incidence, and risk factors [2020]
  • Clinical Guidelines for Management of Bone Health in Rett Syndrome Based on Expert Consensus and Available Evidence [2016]

• Scientific Reports
  • The prevalence of osteoporosis in rheumatoid arthritis patient: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2022]

• University of Sheffield
  • FRAX®

Israel

• Frontiers in Endocrinology
  • Zoledronic acid and denosumab are associated with similar fracture incidence and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes: a population-based cohort study [2025]

Italy

• Aging Clinical and Experimental Research
  • Bone status in patients with chronic hypoparathyroidism: results from the Italian HypoparaNET database [2025]

• Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases
  • Validation of the clinical consensus recommendations on the management of fracture risk in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes [2023]

Japan

• Scientific Reports
  • Relationship between antidementia medication and fracture prevention in patients with Alzheimer's dementia using a nationwide health insurance claims database [2023]

Kuwait

• Osteoporosis International
  • FRAX- vs. T-score-based intervention thresholds for osteoporosis [2017]

Kyrgyzstan

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • A surrogate FRAX model for the Kyrgyz Republic [2020]

Netherlands

• Drugs & Aging
  • Pharmacological Management of Osteoporosis in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients: A Review of the Literature and Practical Guide [2019]

• Osteoporosis International
  • Implementation of osteoporosis guidelines: a survey of five large fracture liaison services in the Netherlands [2011]

• Respiratory Research
  • Fracture prevention in COPD patients; a clinical 5-step approach [2015]

New Zealand

• Starship
  • Bone health and calcium metabolism in paediatric oncology

Norway

• Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
  • The Association of Cold Ambient Temperature With Fracture Risk and Mortality: National Data From Norway-A Norwegian Epidemiologic Osteoporosis Studies (NOREPOS) Study [2022]

Pakistan

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • A surrogate FRAX model for Pakistan [2021]

Poland

• Endokrynologia Polska
  • Treatment of hypoparathyroidism (HypoPT): Position Statement of the Expert Group for Polish Society of Endocrinology - update 2026 [2026]

Republic of Korea

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Association between blood cadmium levels and the risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis in Korean post-menopausal women [2021]

• BMC Public Health
  • Incidence of osteoporosis and ambient air pollution in South Korea: a population-based retrospective cohort study [2021]

• BMC Women's Health
  • Association between body mass index and fragility fracture in postmenopausal women: a cross-sectional study using Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008–2009 (KNHANES IV) [2021]

• Endocrinology and Metabolism
  • Evaluation and Management of Bone Health in Patients with Thyroid Diseases: A Position Statement of the Korean Thyroid Association [2023]

• Frontiers in Public Health
  • Tuberculosis and osteoporotic fracture risk: development of individualized fracture risk estimation prediction model using a nationwide cohort study [2024]

• International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
  • Associations between Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Risk of Osteoporosis-Related Fracture in a Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea [2022]
  • Association between Osteoporosis and Low Hemoglobin Levels: A Nested Case–Control Study Using a National Health Screening Cohort [2021]

• JAMA Network Open
  • Association of Female Reproductive Factors With Incidence of Fracture Among Postmenopausal Women in Korea [2021]

• Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle
  • Incidence of hip fracture in underweight individuals: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Korea [2022]

• Journal of Korean Medical Science
  • The Impact of Persistent Low Weight Status on the Occurrence of Vertebral Fractures: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study [2023]
  • The Epidemiology of Fracture in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke in Korea [2019]

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
  • Association Between Parity and Low Bone Density Among Postmenopausal Korean Women [2021]

• PLoS ONE
  • Association of gamma-glutamyl transferase variability with risk of osteoporotic fractures: A nationwide cohort study [2023]
  • Development of a Korean Fracture Risk Score (KFRS) for Predicting Osteoporotic Fracture Risk: Analysis of Data from the Korean National Health Insurance Service [2016]
  • Age at First Delivery and Osteoporosis Risk in Korean Postmenopausal Women: The 2008–2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) [2015]

• Preventive Medicine
  • Association of long-term exposure to ambient air pollution with osteoporosis among cancer survivors: Results from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [2025]

• Scientific Reports
  • Association of higher potency statin use with risk of osteoporosis and fractures in patients with stroke in a Korean nationwide cohort study [2024]
  • Sex-specific bi-directional association between osteoporosis and depression from the national representative data of South Korea [2022]
  • Severity of underweight and risk of fracture: a Korean nationwide population-based cohort study [2022]
  • Use of serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of subsequent bone loss in a nationwide population-based cohort study [2021]

Singapore

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Use of age-dependent FRAX-based intervention thresholds for Singapore [2020]

Spain

• Endocrinología y Nutrición (English Edition)
  • Clinical practice guidelines for evaluation and treatment of osteoporosis associated to endocrine and nutritional conditions [2012]

Sweden

• Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
  • Increased risk of vertebral fractures and reduced risk of femur fractures in patients with chronic hypoparathyroidism: a nationwide cohort study in Sweden [2025]

• Journal of Internal Medicine
  • Increased risk of osteoporotic fractures and osteoporosis in patients with Addison's disease in Sweden: A nationwide population-based cohort study [2025]

• Osteoporosis International
  • Eating disorders are associated with increased risk of fall injury and fracture in Swedish men and women [2022]

• PLoS Medicine
  • Risk of fracture in adults with type 2 diabetes in Sweden: A national cohort study [2023]

Switzerland

• Journal of Infectious Diseases
  • Association of a Polygenic Risk Score With Osteoporosis in People Living With HIV: The Swiss HIV Cohort Study [2023]

Taiwan

• International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
  • Prescription Patterns in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Osteoporosis [2021]

• International Journal of Medical Sciences
  • Environmental Lead Exposure Predicts Lower Bone Mineral Density in a Large Taiwanese Population-Based Study [2025]
  • Association of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) with Osteoporosis Incidence: A Nationwide Prospective Cohort Study [2025]

• Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health
  • Epidemiology of Osteoporosis in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Taiwan [2024]

• Medicine
  • Consensus recommendations on managing the selected comorbidities including cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and interstitial lung disease in rheumatoid arthritis [2022]

• Nutrients
  • Iron Deficiency Anemia as a Risk Factor for Osteoporosis in Taiwan: A Nationwide Population-Based Study [2017]

• PLoS ONE
  • Association between type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis risk: A representative cohort study in Taiwan [2021]
  • Development and Validation of an Osteoporosis Self-Assessment Tool for Taiwan (OSTAi) Postmenopausal Women-A Sub-Study of the Taiwan OsteoPorosis Survey (TOPS) [2015]

• Scientific Reports
  • Evaluating the association of osteoporosis with inhaled corticosteroid use in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Taiwan [2021]

• Viruses
  • Human Papillomavirus Infections and Increased Risk of Incident Osteoporosis: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study [2023]

Thailand

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Temporal changes in access to FRAX® in Thailand between 2010 and 2018 [2019]

Türkiye

• Journal of Bone Metabolism
  • Agreement between the Turkey Guidelines and the Fracture Risk Assessment Tool®-based Intervention Threshold [2018]

Ukraine

• Journal of Osteoporosis
  • FRAX-Based Intervention Thresholds for Osteoporosis Treatment in Ukraine [2021]

United Kingdom

• Age and Ageing
  • Assessment and management of fracture risk in patients with Parkinson's disease [2015]

• BMJ
  • Predicting risk of osteoporotic and hip fracture in the United Kingdom: prospective independent and external validation of QFractureScores [2011]

• BMJ Open
  • Cost-effectiveness of osteoporotic fracture risk assessment in people with intellectual disabilities: a UK NHS modelling study [2026]
  • Predicting fracture risk in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a UK-based population-based cohort study [2019]

• British Journal of Hospital Medicine
  • Osteoporosis and Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review of Current Understanding and Practice [2024]

• Health and Social Care Delivery Research
  • The implications of competing risks and direct treatment disutility in cardiovascular disease and osteoporotic fracture: risk prediction and cost effectiveness analysis [2024]

• International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
  • Management of Fracture Risk in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Building a UK Consensus Through Healthcare Professional and Patient Engagement [2020]

• National Osteoporosis Guideline Group
  • Fracture risk assessment and case finding [2024]
  • A systematic review of intervention thresholds based on FRAX : A report prepared for the National Osteoporosis Guideline Group and the International Osteoporosis Foundation [2016]

• Osteoporosis International
  • Systematic screening using FRAX® leads to increased use of, and adherence to, anti-osteoporosis medications: An analysis of the UK SCOOP Trial [2020]

United States

• American Society for Bone and Mineral Research
  • Performance of Fracture Risk Assessment Tools by Race and Ethnicity: A Systematic Review for the ASBMR Task Force on Clinical Algorithms for Fracture Risk [2023]

• American Society of Clinical Oncology
  • Management of Osteoporosis in Survivors of Adult Cancers With Nonmetastatic Disease: ASCO Clinical Practice Guideline [2019]

• Archives of Osteoporosis
  • Predictors of imminent risk of fracture in Medicare-enrolled men and women [2020]

• Bone Health & Osteoporosis Foundation
  • The National Osteoporosis Foundation’s position statement on peak bone mass development and lifestyle factors: a systematic review and implementation recommendations [2016]

• Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases
  • Association between post-stroke disability and 5-year hip-fracture risk: The Women’s Health Initiative [2020]

• Open Forum Infectious Diseases
  • Bone Mineral Density Screening Among People With HIV: A Population-Based Analysis in the United States [2021]

• Scientific Reports
  • Correlation between sedentary activity, physical activity and bone mineral density and fat in America: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011-2018 [2023]
  • Trends in osteoporosis and mean bone density among type 2 diabetes patients in the US from 2005 to 2014 [2021]

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