Maternal and neonatal infections

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Influenza in pregnancy

Australia

• Birth Defects Research
  • The risk of major structural birth defects associated with seasonal influenza vaccination during pregnancy: A population-based cohort study [2022]

• NSW Health
  • Influenza information for antenatal care providers

• Public Health Research and Practice
  • An evaluation of the 2016 influenza vaccination in pregnancy campaign in NSW, Australia [2020]

• SA Health
  • Managing pregnant women with suspected influenza

Bhutan

• Vaccine
  • Introducing seasonal influenza vaccine in Bhutan: Country experience and achievements [2023]

Canada

• Public Health Agency of Canada
  • Updated guidance on influenza vaccination during pregnancy [2023]

Canada, United States

• Vaccine
  • A prospective study of influenza vaccination and time to pregnancy [2020]

China

• BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
  • Acceptance of seasonal influenza vaccination and associated factors among pregnant women in the context of COVID-19 pandemic in China: a multi-center cross-sectional study based on health belief model [2021]

• Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
  • Review of the status and challenges associated with increasing influenza vaccination coverage among pregnant women in China [2020]

Denmark

• Journal of Internal Medicine
  • Effectiveness of maternal immunization with trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in pregnant women and their infants [2019]

Europe

• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
  • Survey report on national seasonal influenza vaccination recommendations and coverage rates in EU/EEA countries, 2024/25 [2025]
  • Seasonal influenza vaccination recommendations and coverage rates in EU/EEA Member States [2023]

• European Journal of Medical Research
  • Determinants of influenza vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women in Europe: a systematic review [2021]

• WHO European Region
  • WHO Regional Office for Europe recommendations on influenza vaccination for the 2021/2022 season during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic [2021]
  • Tailoring immunization programmes for seasonal influenza (TIP FLU): a guide for promoting uptake of maternal influenza vaccination [2017]
  • Influenza vaccination coverage, pregnant women

France

• Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
  • Seasonal influenza vaccine uptake and vaccine refusal among pregnant women in France: results from a national survey [2020]

• Scientific Reports
  • Trends of influenza vaccination coverage in pregnant women: a ten-year analysis from a French healthcare database [2022]

Germany

• Vaccines
  • Monitoring of Influenza Vaccination Coverage among Pregnant Women in Germany Based on Nationwide Outpatient Claims Data: Findings for Seasons 2014/15 to 2019/20 [2021]

Hong Kong

• Vaccine
  • Programme costs for introducing age/gestation-based universal influenza vaccine schedules for young children and pregnant women in Hong Kong [2021]
  • Feasibility of age- and gestation-based routine universal influenza vaccines schedules for children aged 6 months - 2 years and pregnant women [2021]

International

• BMC Infectious Diseases
  • Pregnancy as a risk factor for severe influenza infection: an individual participant data meta-analysis [2019]

• BMC Public Health
  • One “misunderstood” health issue: demonstrating and communicating the safety of influenza a vaccination in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis [2021]

• BMJ Open
  • Safety of influenza vaccination during pregnancy: a systematic review [2023]

• Frontiers in Immunology
  • Safety, Immunogenicity, Efficacy and Effectiveness of Inactivated Influenza Vaccines in Healthy Pregnant Women and Children Under 5 Years: An Evidence-Based Clinical Review [2021]

• Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses
  • Exposure to quadrivalent influenza vaccine during pregnancy: Results from a global pregnancy registry [2022]
  • The Global Influenza Initiative recommendations for the vaccination of pregnant women against seasonal influenza [2015]

• International Journal of Infectious Diseases
  • Vaccinating pregnant women against influenza needs to be a priority for all countries: An expert commentary [2020]

• PLoS ONE
  • Views and experiences of maternal healthcare providers regarding influenza vaccine during pregnancy globally: A systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis [2022]

• Vaccine
  • Seasonal influenza vaccination: A global review of national policies in 194 WHO member states in 2022 [2025]
  • The faces of influenza vaccine recommendation: A Literature review of the determinants and barriers to health providers’ recommendation of influenza vaccine in pregnancy [2020]
  • The effectiveness of influenza vaccination in pregnancy in relation to child health outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis [2020]
  • Influenza epidemiology and immunization during pregnancy: Final report of a World Health Organization working group [2017]
  • Review of prescribing information for influenza vaccines for pregnant and lactating women [2016]
  • Does influenza vaccination improve pregnancy outcome? Methodological issues and research needs [2015]
  • A global perspective of maternal influenza immunization [2015]

• Viruses
  • First-Trimester Influenza Infection Increases the Odds of Non-Chromosomal Birth Defects: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [2022]

Ireland

• Health Protection Surveillance Centre
  • Pregnancy Guidance for Seasonal Influenza

• Ireland's Health Services
  • Influenza in Pregnancy

Ireland, United Kingdom

• Clinical Infectious Diseases
  • Seasonal Influenza Vaccination During Pregnancy and the Risk of Major Congenital Malformations in Live-born Infants: A 2010–2016 Historical Cohort Study [2021]

Japan

• Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
  • Maternal influenza vaccination relates to receiving relevant information among pregnant women in Japan [2020]

• International Journal of Infectious Diseases
  • Safety of influenza vaccination on adverse birth outcomes among pregnant women: A prospective cohort study in Japan [2020]

Laos

• Vaccine
  • Cost-effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination in pregnant women, healthcare workers and adults >= 60 years of age in Lao People’s Democratic Republic [2021]

Low and middle income countries

• PLoS Medicine
  • Costs and cost-effectiveness of influenza illness and vaccination in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review from 2012 to 2022 [2024]

• PLoS ONE
  • Determinants of maternal influenza vaccination in the context of low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review [2022]

Middle-income countries

• Clinical Infectious Diseases
  • Performance of Symptom-Based Case Definitions to Identify Influenza Virus Infection Among Pregnant Women in Middle-Income Countries: Findings From the Pregnancy and Influenza Multinational Epidemiologic (PRIME) Study [2021]

Mongolia

• PLoS ONE
  • Burden of Influenza and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Pregnant Women and Infants Under 6 Months in Mongolia: A Prospective Cohort Study [2016]

New Zealand

• Immunisation Advisory Centre
  • Influenza Pregnancy

• Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses
  • Multi-decade national cohort identifies adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes associated with acute respiratory illness hospitalisations during the influenza season [2023]

Norway

• European Journal of Epidemiology
  • Seasonal and pandemic influenza during pregnancy and risk of fetal death: A Norwegian registry-based cohort study [2020]

Republic of Korea

• PLoS ONE
  • The impact of free vaccination policies under the Korean Influenza National Immunization Program: Trends in influenza vaccination rates in South Korea from 2010 to 2019 [2022]

South Africa

• BMC Health Services Research
  • An evaluation of an influenza vaccination campaign targeting pregnant women in 27 clinics in two provinces of South Africa, 2015 – 2018 [2021]

• Vaccine
  • A cost-effectiveness analysis of antenatal influenza vaccination among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected pregnant women in South Africa [2019]

Spain

• Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
  • Influenza hospitalizations in children under 1 year old in Spain: the importance of maternal immunization [2021]

• PLoS ONE
  • Exploring the risk of severe outcomes and the role of seasonal influenza vaccination in pregnant women hospitalized with confirmed influenza, Spain, 2010/11-2015/16 [2018]

Switzerland

• BMJ Open
  • Losing ground at the wrong time: trends in self-reported influenza vaccination uptake in Switzerland, Swiss Health Survey 2007–2017 [2021]

United Kingdom

• BMC Public Health
  • Influenza vaccine uptake among at-risk adults (aged 16–64 years) in the UK: a retrospective database analysis [2021]

• Department of Health and Social Care
  • Annual flu programme

• HSC Public Health Agency
  • Influenza immunisation programme: Factsheet for healthcare practitioners [2022]

• PLoS ONE
  • Incidence, risk factors and impact of seasonal influenza in pregnancy: A national cohort study [2021]

• Right Decisions
  • Influenza in Pregnancy

• UK Health Security Agency
  • Influenza: the green book, chapter 19
  • Influenza vaccination in pregnancy: advice for healthcare professionals
  • Appendix G: pregnant women

United States

• American Academy of Pediatrics
  • Recommendations for Prevention and Control of Influenza in Children, 2024–2025: Technical Report [2024]

• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
  • Influenza in Pregnancy: Prevention and Treatment [2025]

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  • Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza with Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices — United States, 2025–26 Influenza Season [2025]
  • Influenza vaccination during pregnancy and risk of selected major structural congenital heart defects, National Birth Defects Prevention Study 2006-2011 [2023]
  • Influenza vaccination during pregnancy and risk of selected major structural noncardiac birth defects, National Birth Defects Prevention Study 2006-2011 [2022]
  • Vital Signs: Burden and Prevention of Influenza and Pertussis Among Pregnant Women and Infants — United States [2019]
  • Influenza Vaccination Coverage During Pregnancy — Selected Sites, United States, 2005–06 Through 2013–14 Influenza Vaccine Seasons [2016]
  • Influenza Vaccine Safety Considerations during Pregnancy or while Breastfeeding
  • Guidance for the Prevention and Control of Influenza in the Peri- and Postpartum Settings

• Food and Drug Administration
  • Treatment of Influenza During Pregnancy

• JAMA Pediatrics
  • Maternal Vaccine Effectiveness Against Influenza-Associated Hospitalizations and Emergency Department Visits in Infants [2024]

• Journal of Women's Health
  • Preventing Influenza Virus Infection and Severe Influenza Among Pregnant People and Infants [2024]

• Open Forum Infectious Diseases
  • Clinical Effectiveness and Safety of Antivirals for Influenza in Pregnancy [2021]

• Vaccine
  • Influenza vaccination during early pregnancy and risk of major birth defects, US Birth Defects Study To Evaluate Pregnancy exposureS, 2014-2019 [2025]
  • Maternal influenza vaccination and associated risk of fetal loss: A claims-based prospective cohort study [2024]

WHO

• World Health Organization
  • WHO preferred product characteristics for next generation influenza vaccines, 2nd ed [2025]
  • Behavioural and social drivers of influenza vaccination: tools and practical guidance for achieving high uptake [2025]
  • Clinical practice guidelines for influenza [2024]
  • Seasonal influenza vaccination: developing and strengthening national programmes - policy brief [2023]
  • Vaccines against influenza: WHO position paper – May 2022 [2022]
  • Labelling information of inactivated influenza vaccines for use in pregnant women, Annex 8, TRS No 1004 [2017]
  • WHO Informal consultation on labelling information of influenza vaccines intended to be used in pregnant women [2016]
  • How to implement influenza vaccination of pregnant women: An introduction manual for national immunization programme managers and policy makers [2016]
  • WHO working group meeting on labelling information of influenza vaccines intended to be used in pregnant women [2015]

{Related topics}

• Topic
  • Vaccines in pregnancy
  • Respiratory and hypersensitivity disorders in pregnancy
  • Influenza A (H1N1) in pregnancy
  • Infections in pregnancy